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nazism

Nazism refers to the ideology and policies espoused and practiced by
Adolf HITLER and his Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei
(National Socialist German Workers party) from 1921 to 1945. After a
checkered beginning, the party gathered strength rapidly in the 1930s
until it was able to prevent its opponents from forming a majority in the
Reichstag, or lower house of the parliament. Hitler became chancellor and
dictator in 1933 (see GERMANY, HISTORY OF).

Although some tenets of nazism, such as NATIONALISM and
ANTI-SEMITISM, had existed earlier in German history, the Nazi ideology as
a whole was a product of the beliefs of Hitler, articulated in his book
MEIN KAMPF. Nazism had several elements: (1) A belief--with a theoretical
and pseudoscientific basis in the works of the comte de GOBINEAU, Houston
Stewart CHAMBERLAIN, and Alfred ROSENBERG--in an Aryan German race
superior to all others and destined to rule, together with a violent
hatred of Jews that led to the establishment of CONCENTRATION CAMPS and to
the HOLOCAUST. (2) An extreme nationalism that called for the unification
of all German-speaking peoples. This led to the occupation of Austria, a
German-speaking country, and of Czechoslovakia, which had a large German
minority. (3) A belief in some form of corporative state socialism,
although the left-leaning members of the party were purged in 1934. (4) A
private army, called the SS (Schutzstaffel, or security echelon: see
GESTAPO; POLICE STATE). (5) A youth cult that emphasized sports and
paramilitary outdoor activities. (6) The massive use of propaganda,
masterminded by Joseph GOEBBELS. (7) The submission of all decisions to
the supreme leader Adolf Hitler, and the glorification of strength and
discipline. Nazism somewhat resembled FASCISM, which preceded it in
Italy. It spawned several small Nazi parties in the occupied countries,
Britain, and the United States.

Bibliography:
Bendersky, Joseph W., A History of Nazi Germany (1984); Bracher, Karl D.,
The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National
Socialism, trans. by Jean Steinberg (1970); Kater, Michael H., The Nazi
Party (1985); Mosse, George L., The Crisis of German Ideology:
Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (1964; repr. 1981) and Nazism
(1978); Orlow, Dietrich, The History of the Third Reich (1960; repr.
1981); Smith, W. D., The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (1986).





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Hitler, Adolf

{hit'-lur}

Adolf Hitler was the ruler of Germany from 1933 to 1945. Guided by
concepts of elitism and racism, he established a brutal totalitarian
regime under the ideological banner of National Socialism, or NAZISM. His
drive for empire resulted in the devastation of World War II, culminating
in Germany's defeat and the reordering of world power relationships.

Early Life

Hitler was born on Apr. 20, 1889, in the Austrian town of Braunau am
Inn, the son of Alois, a customs official, and Klara Hitler. Alois, who
was illegitimate, used his mother's name, Schicklgruber, until 1876, when
he adopted the name Hitler. He was very stern with his son and abhorred
Adolf's dreamy ways. His death, in 1903, came as a relief to Adolf. Adolf
idealized his mother, however, whose death in 1907 had a traumatic effect
on him.

Hitler failed as a student in the classical secondary schools, a
situation that contributed to his desire to become an artist. He went to
Vienna in 1907 but was unable to gain admission to the Academy of Fine
Arts. He lived a shadowy, alienated existence in multiracial Vienna until
1913. His years there were characterized by melancholy, aimlessness, and
racial hatred--in Vienna he developed his lifelong obsession with the
"danger" that world Jewry posed to the "Aryan race."

In 1913, Hitler went to Munich, partly to evade conscription into the
Austrian army. There, however, he answered the call to colors at the
outbreak (August 1914) of World War I. Serving in the Bavarian Sixteenth
Regiment on the western front, he distinguished himself for bravery and
was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class. For the first time in his life
Hitler had found a home; he glorified the raw majesty of life under fire,
the beauty of comradeship, and the nobility of the warrior. His soldierly
dreams of victory and fulfillment were shattered, however, by Germany's
defeat. He became convinced that Germany had been "stabbed in the back"
by Jews and Marxists.

Political Rise

Hitler's rise to power paralleled the unstable course of the Weimar
Republic, which replaced the fallen Hohenzollern monarchy. The abortive
Communist revolution in Germany and the dictated Peace of Versailles
determined Hitler's decision to enter politics. In 1919 he joined a small
political faction in Munich and within the next year formed the National
Socialist German Workers' party (NSDAP). He directed the organization
with an iron hand and used its meetings to deliver forceful rhetorical
assaults on Germany's "enemies." In 1923 he led the party into the
ill-fated MUNICH PUTSCH. This action resulted in his imprisonment.

While in prison at Landsberg, Hitler wrote MEIN KAMPF, which became
the standard work of Nazi political philosophy. He defined the enemy as
world Jewry, international communism, effete liberalism, and decadent
capitalism. Hitler offered instead pure Aryan blood and the renewal of
German nationalism under a fighting elite. Germany would once more become
the leading power on the Continent and gain its living space (Lebensraum)
in central Europe and Russia.
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Released after serving 9 months of a 5-year sentence, Hitler
reemerged as the NSDAP's leader in 1925. He moved swiftly to reshape the
party and neutralize Gregor STRASSER, who had built a Nazi power base for
himself in the industrial north. Hitler gathered around him a devoted
cadre of lieutenants, including the air ace Hermann GOERING, the
propagandist Joseph GOEBBELS, the police technician Heinrich HIMMLER, and
the rabid anti-Semitic journalist Julius Streicher.

The Great Depression opened the way for Hitler's success. Mass
unemployment, Communist insurgency, and an alliance between the Nazis and
the industrialist Alfred Hugenberg's Nationalist party all contributed to
the NSDAP's electoral breakthrough in September 1930. It increased its
seats in the Reichstag from 12 to 107, becoming the second largest party.
Hitler capitalized on the violent political climate by employing the SA
(Sturmabteilung, or Brownshirts), the Nazi paramilitary arm, in the battle
for the streets.

His strategy worked. In April 1932 he only narrowly lost the
presidential election to the incumbent Paul von HINDENBURG, and elections
in July made the Nazis the largest party in the Reichstag, with 37% of the
vote. The party retained this position despite a decline in its vote in
the November elections. Finally, Hindenburg, having failed to gain
stability under the regimes of Heinrich BRUNING, Franz von PAPEN, and Kurt
von SCHLEICHER, named Hitler as chancellor on Jan. 30, 1933.

Consolidation of Power

Hitler's consolidation of power was a gradual process that involved
both the assumption of dictatorial authority and the elimination of
opposition outside and within the Nazi party. The REICHSTAG fire of Feb.
27, 1933, provided a pretext for outlawing the Communist party and
arresting its leaders. The real breakthrough, however, came with the
Reichstag's passage of the Enabling Act on Mar. 23, 1933, giving Hitler 4
years of dictatorial powers.

Having won a commanding lead in the last free elections, held in
March, Hitler proceeded to dismantle all parties except the NSDAP. All
federal and state institutions and organizations were "coordinated,"
purged of Jewish influence, and brought under party control. On June 30,
1934, Hitler liquidated Ernst ROEHM, commander of the SA, along with
hundreds of other Nazi radicals. With the death of Hindenburg in August
1934, Hitler also assumed the functions of the presidency. He adopted the
title of Fuhrer, or supreme leader, of the THIRD REICH.

Institutional supremacy was reinforced by an elaborate terror
apparatus, established by Reichsfuhrer Himmler, leader of the SS
(Schutzstaffel, or Blackshirts), the paramilitary organization that
supplanted the SA. The SS and GESTAPO instituted the notorious system of
CONCENTRATION CAMPS. Although other groups and institutions suffered
persecution by the Nazis because of their political unacceptability, the
Jews were abused solely because of their racial identity. One decree
after another eliminated them from their positions in the professions and
bureaucracy. The Nuremberg Racial Laws of 1935 deprived them of their
citizenship.

Propaganda went hand in hand with terror. Goebbels adroitly
orchestrated themes that were synchronized with Hitler's successes in both
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domestic and foreign affairs. Germany's economic recovery reinforced the
widespread support Hitler enjoyed throughout the Reich during in the 1930s.

The Road to War

Hitler's economic policies were initially geared to recovery from the
depression; thereafter, they were tied to his foreign-policy goals. By
appointing Hjalmar SCHACHT, the architect of Germany's financial recovery
in the 1920s, as his economics minister, Hitler reaffirmed his support of
conservative economic policies. He undertook a vast program of public
works, including construction of a network of superhighways (Autobahnen),
which both returned the unemployed to work and primed the economy. By
naming Goering director of the Four Year Plan in 1936, however, Hitler
focused the entire economy on preparations for war.

Hitler's foreign-policy goals were spelled out in Mein Kampf: to
overturn the Versailles settlement and unite all Germans in a single
Greater Germany, to destroy Bolshevism, and to conquer and colonize
eastern Europe. At first he proceeded cautiously. He withdrew Germany
from the League of Nations as early as October 1933, but he offset
criticism by repeated declarations of his peaceful intentions and by
concluding a series of bilateral agreements, including a nonaggression
pact with Poland (1934). As the indecisiveness of his opponents became
clear, Hitler acted more forcefully. In March 1935 he announced the
rearmament of Germany in open violation of the Treaty of Versailles. He
was rewarded by Britain's concurrence in the form of an Anglo-German Naval
Pact (June 1935). The following year, without warning, he remilitarized
the Rhineland, and France remained immobile. The two major European
democracies, fearful of war, seemed set on the course of appeasement.

Bolstered by the formation (1936) of the Rome-Berlin AXIS and the
Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, Hitler outlined his war plans to the
German military leaders in a secret meeting in November 1937. Several of
them objected and were promptly dismissed. In March 1938 he annexed
Austria (the Anschluss). Later that year, after an international crisis
over alleged abuses to ethnic Germans in the Sudeten area of western
Czechoslovakia, Britain and France joined Italy in signing the Sudetenland
over to Germany at the MUNICH CONFERENCE. In March 1939, German troops
completed the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. Belatedly, Britain and
France moved to guarantee Poland's integrity. Hitler, undeterred,
concluded (August 1939) the NAZI-SOVIET PACT, which cleared the way for
his attack on Poland on September 1. He was surprised but prepared when
France and Britain declared war on September 3. The pact with the USSR
provided him the opportunity to crush his enemies in the west piecemeal.

World War II

Hitler became overconfident during the BLITZKRIEG campaigns of
1939-40, when he was lionized as the "greatest military commander of all
times." With victories in Poland (1939) and France (1940) he avenged the
alleged injustices of Versailles. By June 1940, Axis control stretched
from the Arctic to North Africa, from France to central Europe. Hitler
received his first reversal in the BATTLE OF BRITAIN (fall 1940), forcing
him to abandon his plan to invade Britain.

The Fuhrer lost no time in establishing the "New Order" in occupied
Europe, a system based on terror, forced labor, and concentration camps.
Under the cover of war, he began the "Final Solution of the Jewish
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Question," which involved the liquidation of European Jewry (see
HOLOCAUST).

In June 1941, Hitler cast aside the Nazi-Soviet Pact and invaded the
USSR, as he had always planned. He was rewarded with several major
victories in classic battles of encirclement. The Soviets, however,
turned the tide--first at Moscow (December 1941) and later at Stalingrad
(winter 1942-43). Moreover, in December 1941, the United States--a factor
that Hitler had barely considered--entered the war.

By mid-1943, Hitler's time of trial had begun. The bloody retreat
from Russia had commenced, North Africa was lost, his Italian ally Benito
MUSSOLINI had fallen, and German cities were being demolished by Allied
bombing. In June 1944 the Allies landed on the coast of France, opening
the long-awaited second front. Hitler was the victim of an assassination
attempt by a group of his own officers on July 20, 1944, but he
miraculously survived. A physical wreck, he became increasingly bitter
and isolated.

With German defenses crumbling in the east and west, Hitler finally
realized that his fate was sealed. Having appointed Adm. Karl DOENITZ as
his successor and married his long-time companion Eva BRAUN, he committed
suicide in Berlin on Apr. 30, 1945. This signaled the disintegration of
the Third Reich and the end of the Fascist era.

Jay W. Baird

Bibliography:
Bracher, Karl D., The German Dictatorship, trans. by Jean Steinburg
(1970); Broszat, Martin, Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany
(1987); Bullock, Alan, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, rev. ed. (1962);
Fest, Joachim C., Hitler, trans. by Richard and Clara Winston (1974);
Flood, Charles Bracelen, Hitler: The Path to Power (1989); Schoenbaum,
David, Hitler's Social Revolution (1966); Smith, Bradley F., Adolf
Hitler: His Family, Childhood, and Youth (1967); Snyder, Louis L.,
Hitler's Elite (1989); Spielvogel, Jackson, Hitler and Nazi Germany
(1988); Toland, John, Adolf Hitler (1976; repr. 1984); Trevor-Roper,
H. R., The Last Days of Hitler (1947; repr. 1986) and, as ed., Hitler's
Secret Conversations 1941-1945 (1953); Waite, Robert, The Psychopathic
God: Adolf Hitler (1978; repr. 1983).

See also: GERMANY, HISTORY OF; TOTALITARIANISM; WORLD WAR II.

Picture Captions

Adolf Hitler, dictator of Germany (1933-45), is depicted in Nazi
uniform in a 1933 portrait by B. Jacobs. Hitler's aggressive expansionism
precipitated World War II; initially successful, his armies were finally
defeated by the Allies in May 1945. (The Bettman Archive.)







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Nuremberg Trials

At the end of World War II the victorious Allies (the United States,
Great Britain, France, and the USSR) established an international military
tribunal to try the surviving Axis leaders for WAR CRIMES. The trials took
place in the German city of Nuremberg from November 1945 to October 1946.

In the main trial 22 German Nazi leaders were tried. Of these, 12
were sentenced to death, including Wilhelm KEITEL, Joachim von RIBBENTROP,
Alfred ROSENBERG, Martin BORMANN (who was tried in absentia), and Hermann
GOERING (who committed suicide); three, including Rudolf HESS, were given
life sentences; four, including Karl DOENITZ and Albert SPEER, were
sentenced to up to 20 years' imprisonment; and three, including Franz von
PAPEN and Hjalmar SCHACHT, were acquitted. Lesser criminals were tried in
12 subsequent trials. The conviction of individuals for acts that were
sanctioned by the government of the country they served raised legal
issues that have made the Nuremberg Trials the subject of controversy.

Bibliography:
Benton, Wilbourn E., and Grimm, Georg, eds., Nur emberg: German Views of
the War Trials (1955); Davidson, Eugene, Trial of the Germans (1966);
Harris, Whitney R., Tyranny on Trial: The Evidence at Nuremberg (1954);
Heydecker, Joe, and Leeb, Johannes, The Nuremberg Trial, trans. and ed. by
R. A. Downie (1962; repr. 1975); Maser, Werner, Nuremberg: A Nation on
Trial (1979); Naeve, Airey, On Trial at Nuremberg (1979); Smith, Bradley
F., Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg (1977).






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Nuremberg was first mentioned in written sources in 1050. The
fortified town received its charter as a free imperial city in 1219.
During the Renaissance the city experienced both economic and cultural
prosperity; Albrecht Durer lived here from 1509 to 1528. Melanchton
established a school in the city in 1526. Nuremberg became part of Bavaria
in 1806 and part of the German Empire in 1871. During the 1930s the city
was a center of Nazi activity. Although more than half of the city was
destroyed during World War II, the medieval landmarks and the modern city
have been completely restored. The Nuremberg Trials of Nazi leaders
accused of war crimes were held there from 1945 to 1946.






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Holocaust

{hohl'-uh-kawst}

Holocaust, an Old Testament sacrificial term, is used by historians
to describe the massacre of 6 million Jews by the German Nazi regime
during World War II (see ANTI-SEMITISM). Adolf HITLER gave top priority to
removing the Jews from Germany. Between 1933 and 1938 the Nazis boycotted
Jewish businesses, established quotas in Germany's professions and
schools, forbade intermarriage between Jews and Gentiles (Nuremberg Laws,
1935), and instituted the first CONCENTRATION CAMPS at Oranienburg,
BUCHENWALD, and DACHAU--all of this while the rest of the world looked on.
The Nazis used the assassination of Ernst vom Rath, a German legation
secretary in Paris, as an excuse for Kristallnacht ("the night of broken
glass"): on the night of Nov. 9-10, 1938, storm troopers burned 267
synagogues and arrested 20,000 people. Germany's Jews were also required
to pay an atonement fine of $400 million for damage to their own property.

After World War II began in September 1939, 3 million Polish Jews
were subjected to a Blitzpogrom of murder and rape. Reinhard Heydrich, an
aide to Heinrich HIMMLER, issued a ghetto decree that month, and Jews were
progressively fenced off from the rest of the population. As 700,000 died
of disease and starvation during the next 2 years, the Nazis toyed with
the idea of deporting all Jews to Nisko, a proposed reservation in the
Lublin area, or to Madagascar. When Germany attacked the USSR in June
1941, four special Einsatzgruppen ("strike squads") were deployed against
Soviet Jewish civilians. The worst atrocity committed by these squads
occurred at the Babi Yar ravine in Kiev, where 33,771 Jews were
machine-gunned on Sept. 29-30, 1941. At Hitler's insistence, Heydrich
chaired (January 1942) the Wannsee Conference on the Final Solution of the
Jewish Question. During the next three years, Jews represented more than
half of those exterminated as undesirables in concentration camps. Methods
of killing at AUSCHWITZ and other camps included cyanide gas or carbon
monoxide gas, electrocution, phenol injections, flamethrowers, and hand
grenades.

Lacking weapons, weakened by disease and starvation, and isolated
from the Allies (who were apparently apathetic about their fate), Jews
nevertheless fiercely resisted the Nazis throughout the war. Perhaps as
many as 60,000 joined the partisan units that operated from North Africa
to Belorussia. Ghetto uprisings occurred in Krakow, Bialystok, Vilna,
Kaunas, Minsk, and Slutsk, as well as in Warsaw (April to May 1943; see
WARSAW UPRISING). Jewish inmates destroyed Sobibor and TREBLINKA and led
rebellions in 15 other concentration camps. Despite these efforts, when
World War II ended, two-thirds of Europe's Jews had been murdered, more
than had been slain in POGROMS during the previous 1,800 years. The
foundations of Western theology have been shaken by these horrors; in the
past 25 years a vast literature has developed that attempts to reconcile
God, civilization, and the gas chambers of Auschwitz.

Saul S. Friedman

Bibliography:
Dawidowicz, Lucy S., The War Against the Jews (1975); Dobroszycki, Lucjan,
ed., Chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto, trans. by Richard Lourie, et al.
(1984); Fackenheim, Emil, God's Presence in History (1970) and The Jewish
Return into History (1980); Friedman, Philip, ed., Martyrs and Fighters
(1954); Gilbert, Martin, The Macmillan Atlas of the Holocaust (1982) and
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The Holocaust: A History of the Jews of Europe During the Second World War
(1986); Hilberg, Raul, The Destruction of the European Jews (1961); Levin,
Nora, The Holocaust (1968); Littell, Franklin, The Crucifixion of the Jews
(1974); Morse, Arthur, While Six Million Died (1968; rev ed., 1975);
Reitlinger, Gerald, The Final Solution (1953; rev. ed., 1961); Ringelblum,
E., Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto (1958; rev. ed., 1974); Rubenstein,
Richard J., After Auschwitz (1966); Suhl, Yuri, ed. and trans., They
Fought Back (1967; rev. ed., 1975); Zucotti, Susan, The Italians and the
Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue, and Survival (1987).







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genocide

{jen'-uh-syd}

Genocide (Greek genos, "race," and Latin cide, "killing") is the
persecution or destruction of a national, racial, or religious group.
Years before the word "genocide" was coined by the Polish-American scholar
Raphael Lemkin in 1944, genocide was practiced by the Russians in their
pogroms against the Jews, by the Turks, who slaughtered thousands of
Armenians, and by the German Nazis, who systematically killed ethnic
groups including Jews, Poles, and gypsies. A more recent example is the
slaughtering (1972-79) of various tribal groups by the former president of
Uganda Idi AMIN DADA. In 1945 the NUREMBERG Tribunal, which tried Nazi
war criminals, declared that persecution of racial and religious groups
was a crime under international law. In 1948 the General Assembly of the
United Nations approved the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide, which took effect in 1951. The nations that
ratified the convention agreed that genocide was a matter of international
concern, even if committed by a government within its own territory. Any
nation can ask the United Nations to take action to prevent or suppress
acts of genocide. The United States is a signatory of the Genocide
Convention, but the U.S. Senate, which is reluctant to subject American
citizens to the jurisdiction of any international tribunal, for many years
refused to ratify it; it finally did so in 1986.

Bibliography:
Drost, P. N., Genocide (1969); Horowitz, Irving L., Taking Lives:
Genocie and State Power, 3d ed. (1981); Walliman, Isidor, and Dobkowski,
Michael, Genocide and the Modern Age (1987).







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Nazi hunters

Nazi hunters is a term used to describe people who work to locate and
bring to justice Nazis and Nazi sympathizers who were responsible for the
deaths of Jews and other "undesirables" during World War II, but escaped
punishment by the Allied war crimes tribunals. The most prominent of the
Nazi hunters is Simon WIESENTHAL, founder of the Jewish Documentation
Center in Vienna. Since 1947, Wiesenthal has collected information that
has been used to bring about the arrest and prosecution of more than 1,000
war criminals who otherwise would have escaped punishment. One of his
chief accomplishments was the apprehension in 1960 of Adolf Eichmann, who
had supervised the extermination of nearly 6 million Jews under the Hitler
regime. As a result of Wiesenthal's efforts, Eichmann was discovered in
Argentina and taken to Israel, where he was tried, convicted, and hanged
in 1961. Another Nazi hunting team are the French lawyer Serge Klarsfeld
and his German wife, Beate, who were responsible for the prosecution in
1979 of former Nazi officials Kurt Lischka, Herbert Hagen, and Ernst
Heinrichsohn.

In the United States, Dr. Charles Kremer, a New York dentist, and
John Loftus, a Boston attorney, have publicized the fact that people
guilty of atrocities found refuge in that country during the postwar
period. In the 1970s, Kremer, head of the Committee to Bring Nazi War
Criminals to Justice, helped expose Valerian Trifa, a Romanian Nazi
collaborator who later became archbishop of the Romanian Orthodox church
in America.

One of the most notorious and most sought Nazi fugitives was Josef
Mengele, the chief medical officer at the AUSCHWITZ concentration camp who
was called the "angel of death." Reported sightings of Mengele, primarily
in Paraguay and other South American countries, continued into the 1980s.
In June 1985, however, an international team of forensic specialists
concluded that the remains of a man buried in Brazil in 1979 were those of
Mengele. It was reported that he had been living in Brazil under the
assumed name of Wolfgang Gerhard when he died in a drowning accident in
1979.

Another long-time fugitive Nazi, Klaus Barbie, known as the "butcher
of Lyon" when he headed the Gestapo in that French city during the German
occupation, was located in Bolivia by the Klarsfelds in 1971, but was not
extradited from Bolivia to France until 1983.







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